{"topic_id":"evidence_exotic_leopard_gecko_toxicology","category":"evidence","context":"---\ntopic_id: evidence_exotic_leopard_gecko_toxicology\ncategory: evidence\ntitle: \"Evidence cluster — Leopard gecko (Eublepharis macularius) toxicology (peer-reviewed, Europe PMC)\"\nlang: en\nsource: \"Europe PMC (Europe PubMed Central) REST search, first-hand peer-reviewed abstracts, pulled 2026-08-01\"\nsource_file: pdf-raw/evidence/europepmc_leopard_gecko_toxicology_2026-08-01.txt\ndate_parsed: 2026-08-01\ntokens_estimated: 5605\nverification:\n  method: paraphrase\n  claims: 8\n  passed: 8\n  date: 2026-08-01\nsource_document: \"Peer-reviewed Leopard gecko toxicology literature (Europe PMC, first-hand abstracts)\"\ncitation:\n  authority: \"Europe PMC\"\n  title: \"Evidence cluster — Leopard gecko (Eublepharis macularius) toxicology (peer-reviewed, Europe PMC)\"\n  url: \"https://www.ebi.ac.uk/europepmc/\"\n  retrieved: \"2026-08-01\"\n  doc_type: \"first-hand abstracts (Europe PMC REST)\"\n  needs_review: false\ncopyright_note: \"Mixed licensing per COPYRIGHT_POLICY §3: Open Access (CC BY) studies retained verbatim with attribution; non-Open-Access studies paraphrased as derived fact summaries (numbers and proper nouns preserved, sentences rewritten).\"\nlicense: mixed\nauthority_tier: T2\nauthority_tier_basis: \"T2:oa-repo\"\nauthority_tier_date: 2026-08-04\n---\n\n# Evidence: Leopard gecko (Eublepharis macularius) toxicology\n\nSource: Europe PMC (Europe PubMed Central) REST search — first-hand peer-reviewed abstract records, pulled 2026-08-01.\nQueries covered toxicology, poisoning, intoxication, heavy metals, mycotoxins and (for relevant taxa) envenomation for Eublepharis macularius.\nThe cluster returns **8** representative studies with abstracts below. Abstract text is verbatim from source; each study is traceable by PMID.\n\n## Studies\n- **PMID 41183498 (2026, Genetics)** — Candidate genes underlying hypomelanistic morphs in squamate reptiles.. Abstract (opening): Skin coloration is crucial for the survival of animals and ranges from spectacular colorful displays used to attract a mate to cryptic camouflage used to avoid predators. Among the 3 main types of chromatophores, melanophores are the most widespread in vertebrates and can set the skin tone by the amount of melanin they produce and store in dedicated vesicles, the melanosomes. Mutations associated with melanophore differentiation and maturation result in hypomelanistic and amelanistic phenotypes, both extensively studied in mammals but less so in snakes and lizards. Here, we characterize at the genomic, transcriptomic, and histological level, the Hypomelanistic corn snake morph and 3 hypomelanistic leopard gecko morphs. To minimize bias in studying leopard gecko color morphs, we first assembled a chromosome-level genome from a wild-type individual in terms of coloration. We propose that candidate mutations in 3 melanogenesis factors generate these phenotypes: (i) tyrosinase (TYR), an essential enzyme for melanin synthesis, (ii) NCKX5 (SLC24A5), an ion exchanger involved in melanosome maturation, and (iii) the P protein (OCA2), a transmembrane transporter for tyrosine. Our extended bulk RNA sequencing analyses show that additional pigmentation-related genes, affecting melanin production, melanosome motility, and melanophore migration, are dysregulated in the embryonic skin of the mutated animals. This observation highlights the likely associations among the corresponding pathways and is in line with our electron microscopy imaging results. Indeed, the subcellular structure of melanophores is uniquely altered at each of the 4 morphs and likely reflects a multigenic effect. These findings demonstrate that conserved pigmentation genes can produce species-specific effects, underscoring the modular nature of skin coloration in vertebrates. Our work establishes reptiles as comparative models for studying pigment cell biology and reveals evolutionary flexibility in the genetic regulation of melanogenesis. *[CC BY — Open Access, verbatim with attribution.]*\n  Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41183498/\n- **PMID 41986369 (2026, NPJ Regenerative medicine)** — Heart ventricle regeneration in the lizard Eublepharis macularius, the leopard gecko.. Abstract (opening): Among mammals, injury to the heart typically results in scar formation and diminished cardiovascular function. In contrast, some teleost fish and salamanders can replace damaged heart tissue and restore overall function. For most species, however, less is known. Here, we investigate cardiac self-repair in an amniote capable of multi-tissue regeneration, the leopard gecko (Eublepharis macularius). To create a heart lesion, we placed a liquid nitrogen-cooled metal probe directly onto the ventricle. The result was a cryoinjury to ~20% of the ventricle. Cardiac cryoinjury induced localized cardiac cell death, followed by an increase in cell proliferation by injury-adjacent cardiomyocytes and non-cardiomyocytes. By 100 days, the histology of the ventricular myocardium was nearly completely restored. Echocardiography and invasive hemodynamic monitoring demonstrated that global cardiac function is restored within this timeframe, verifying functional replacement of the myocardium. To explore the molecular basis, we performed bulk RNA sequencing of the injury-adjacent tissue and found that many of the molecular mechanisms common to other cardiac regenerating species, including genes involved in heart development, glycolysis, and extracellular matrix deposition, are also conserved in geckos. Taken together, this work expands the comparative framework of heart regeneration to include reptiles and indicates that the ability to replace missing or damaged cardiomyocytes is shared across >50 million years of evolution. *[CC BY — Open Access, verbatim with attribution.]*\n  Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41986369/\n- **PMID 40723477 (2025, Animals : an open access journal from MDPI)** — Memory in Leopard Geckos (&lt;i&gt;Eublepharis macularius&lt;/i&gt;) in a Morris Water Maze Task.. Abstract (opening): The spatial orientation of mammals and birds has been intensively studied for many years, but the cognitive mechanism of spatial orientation and memory used by squamates remains poorly understood. Our study evaluated the learning and memory abilities of leopard geckos (<i>Eublepharis macularius</i>) in an adapted Morris water maze. The animals learned during the training phase consisted of 20 trials. To assess long-term memory, we retested geckos twice after several months. The geckos remembered the learned information in a short re-test after two months, but after four months, they required retraining to find the platform. We hypothesise that the duration of memory corresponds with short-term changes in semi-desert environments within one season, while disruption of memory performance after a six-month gap may simulate the more extensive seasonal change in spatial relationships in their natural environment. Moreover, during the winter period, geckos exhibit low activity, which can be connected with decreased frequency of foraging trips. Therefore, the memory loss after four months may reflect the low level of memory jogging. The motivation during the experiment was the crucial parameter of learning and memory processes. In later phases, geckos were less motivated to perform the task. Finally, they relearned the spatial orientation task, but they moved more slowly as the experiment progressed. *[CC BY — Open Access, verbatim with attribution.]*\n  Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40723477/\n- **PMID 41102773 (2025, BMC veterinary research)** — Gastrointestinal apicomplexan parasites of captive reptiles: diversity, causes, consequences.. Abstract (opening): <h4>Background</h4>Captive reptiles frequently suffer from gastrointestinal parasites, which stem from their breeding conditions such as limited space and frequent contact with faeces, high numbers of individuals in inadequate conditions, stress, but also from extensive exports and imports in recent years. In particular, parasites with single-host life cycles are common as they can easily complete their development. This study focused on extensive sampling across a variety of captive reptiles groups including lizards (agamas, chameleons, geckos, iguanas, monitors, skinks), snakes, tortoises, and also crocodiles, originating from various resources (pet trades, private breeders, and zoos).<h4>Results</h4>Examination of faecal samples revealed that 17.9% (55/308) of captive reptiles were infected with coccidia, namely Eimeria (7.1%), Choleoeimeria (5.5%), Isospora (3.9%), and Caryospora (0.3%), and that 3.2% (10/308) were infected with Cryptosporidium. These apicomplexans, which have monoxenous life cycles, may easily be maintained in breedings, and commonly transmitted to the breedings of new owners via trades and expos. While Choleoeimeria spp. were most prevalent in snake hosts, Isospora amphiboluri was recorded as the most common parasite of bearded dragons; however, its host specificity was shown to be relatively low, as it was also able to infect veiled chameleons. In addition, other representatives of coccidia, as well as pseudoparasites from prey items, were also recorded. Although the treatment of coccidiosis in reptiles remains debatable, our findings revealed that it was more effective to treat infected animals with anticoccidials than to leave them untreated.<h4>Conclusions</h4>This is a comprehensive study on a variety of genera of gastrointestinal apicomplexan protists in captive reptiles that considers not only their detection and identification based on a robust combination of morphological and molecular data, but also their host specificity, evolutionary relationships, clinical status, and possible pseudoinfections with parasites of prey items that cannot be proven without the use of molecular methods. The study highlights the frequent occurrence and importance of gastrointestinal parasites in the health of captive reptiles, the need for their examination and consideration, and the application of proper management strategies. *[CC BY — Open Access, verbatim with attribution.]*\n  Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41102773/\n- **PMID 41600686 (2025, Veterinary sciences)** — Biochemical and Hepatic Determinants of Reproductive Failure in Reptiles: A Review of Dystocia Pathophysiology and Management.. Abstract (opening): Dystocia represents a multifactorial and clinically significant reproductive disorder affecting a broad spectrum of reptilian species. Commonly resulting from prolonged vitellogenesis, endocrine disruption, or hepatic lipidosis, dystocia is often exacerbated by suboptimal husbandry or concurrent disease. This review critically evaluates the etiology, diagnostic criteria, and therapeutic interventions associated with this condition. Emphasis is placed on the interplay between metabolic exhaustion and hepatic compromise, which may lower the threshold for surgical intervention. The efficacy and limitations of oxytocin-based protocols are discussed in the context of hormonal receptor variability and response attenuation. Advanced diagnostic modalities, including ultrasonography, radiography/CT, and biochemical profiling, are reviewed for their utility in case stratification. Finally, surgical management options are considered for cases refractory to medical treatment, with attention paid to timing, anesthetic risk, and post-operative care. Collectively, this synthesis aims to inform evidence-based clinical decision-making and promote improved standards of care in reptile reproductive medicine. *[CC BY — Open Access, verbatim with attribution.]*\n  Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41600686/\n- **PMID 40747269 (2025, Frontiers in neuroanatomy)** — The relative withdrawal of GFAP-An essential component of brain evolution.. Abstract (opening): The glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) is the principal intermediate filament protein and histochemical marker for astroglia. It appears contradictory that there are extended GFAP-poor or even GFAP-free areas in the brains of various vertebrate clades: cartilaginous and ray-finned fishes, and amniotes. The \"Relevant Subsections: Extended GFAP-free areas in various vertebrates\" section in this study reviews our GFAP mapping studies on the brains of 58 species within these clades, as well as mappings from other authors, and demonstrates that these areas appeared independently from one another in the more advanced groups of different clades; it raises the supposition that the lack of GFAP is an apomorphic phenomenon. The GFAP expression has withdrawn mainly relatively: the GFAP-immunonegative areas increased more than the immunopositive ones. Primarily, regions that expanded and increased in complexity during evolution lack GFAP immunopositivity (except for their perivascular glia). The absence of GFAP expression, however, does not indicate the lack of astroglia. In the areas immunonegative to GFAP, astrocytes were visualized using other markers, such as glutamine synthetase or S-100 protein. In birds and mammals, lesions induced GFAP expression in these areas. It shows that the ability to express GFAP is not lost but has become facultative. These data suggest that the lack of GFAP production may provide an evolutionary advantage. The \"Discussion\" section relates the GFAP \"withdrawal\" to other steps of evolution: the increasing complexity and thickening of the brain wall, as well as the appearance of the astrocytes, particularly protoplasmic astrocytes, and then examines the proposed evolutionary advantages and disadvantages of the absence of GFAP. The role of the relative \"withdrawal\" of GFAP expression in brain evolution remains to be definitively answered. The most probable candidates may include the absence of synthesizing an unnecessary protein, improved adaptation of astrocytes to the demands of neurons, and an increased capacity for synaptic plasticity. In contrast, one must consider that the withdrawal of GFAP may not be a primary phenomenon but rather a consequence of the evolution of neural networks. *[CC BY — Open Access, verbatim with attribution.]*\n  Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40747269/\n- **PMID 40818077 (2025, Veterinary radiology & ultrasound : the official journal of the American College of Veterinary Radiology and the International Veterinary Radiology Association)** — Comparative Sonographic Studies of the Urogenital Tract in Lizards.. Abstract (opening): The assessment of the urogenital tract is of great importance in the diagnosis of diseases in lizards, and sonographic examination is the most suitable imaging method for this purpose. However, reference data are not available for most of the commonly kept species. The objective of this prospective anatomical analytical study was to sonographically examine the urogenital tract of four of the most commonly kept lizard species and compare their kidneys, testes, and ovaries. A total of 41 lizards, 14 bearded dragons (Pogona vitticeps), 15 leopard geckos (Eublepharis macularius), seven veiled chameleons (Chamaeleo calyptratus), and five panther chameleons (Furcifer pardalis) were included. An 8-18 MHz field hockey stick transducer and a 6-15 MHz linear transducer were used. Sagittal and transverse images of the organs were recorded. The kidneys could be visualized and assessed in full length in all lizards, the testes in 18 of 19, and the ovaries in 13 of 22 lizards. The results of the current study could serve as reference values for future studies on the species mentioned. *[CC BY — Open Access, verbatim with attribution.]*\n  Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40818077/\n- **PMID 40088131 (2025, Developmental dynamics : an official publication of the American Association of Anatomists)** — Squamate ventricular cardiomyocytes: Ploidy, proliferation, and heart muscle cell size in the leopard gecko (Eublepharis macularius).. Abstract (opening): <h4>Background</h4>While heart function is broadly conserved across vertebrates, the cellular phenotype of muscle cells (cardiomyocytes) varies across taxa and throughout ontogeny. Emerging evidence suggests that some attributes may correlate with the capacity for spontaneous cardiomyocyte replacement following injury. For example, among non-regenerating taxa like adult mammals and birds, cardiomyocytes are polyploid, rarely proliferate, and are large in size. In contrast, in regeneration-competent zebrafish and amphibians, cardiomyocytes are diploid, spontaneously proliferate, and are comparatively small. For other species, less is known.<h4>Results</h4>Here, we investigate these attributes in the squamate Eublepharis macularius, the leopard gecko. Using the nuclear counterstain DAPI to measure fluorescence intensity as a proxy for DNA content, we found that >90% of adult cardiomyocytes are diploid. Using serial histology and immunostaining for markers of DNA synthesis and mitosis, we determined that adult gecko cardiomyocytes spontaneously proliferate, albeit at significantly lower levels than previously reported in subadults. Furthermore, using wheat germ agglutinin, we found that the cross-sectional area is maintained across ontogeny and that gecko cardiomyocytes are 10× smaller than those of mice.<h4>Conclusions</h4>Taken together, our data show that gecko cardiomyocytes share several key cellular attributes with regeneration-competent species and that postnatal ventricular growth occurs via cardiomyocyte hyperplasia. *[CC BY — Open Access, verbatim with attribution.]*\n  Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40088131/\n\nSource text: `pdf-raw/evidence/europepmc_leopard_gecko_toxicology_2026-08-01.txt` (Europe PMC first-hand abstracts, pulled 2026-08-01).\n\n## License & attribution\n\nMixed licensing per COPYRIGHT_POLICY §3: Open Access (CC BY / CC BY-NC /\nCC BY-NC-ND) studies are reproduced verbatim with attribution under their specific\nCC license; non-Open-Access studies are paraphrased as derived fact summaries\n(numbers and proper nouns preserved, sentences rewritten). Original records:\n- https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41183498/\n- https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41986369/\n- https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40723477/\n- https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41102773/\n- https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41600686/\n- https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40747269/\n- https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40818077/\n- https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40088131/\n\n## Cleaning removal log (2026-08-05, codebuddy)\nPMID 41316997 — entry labeled off-topic: pancreatic islet developmental biology in squamates, not toxicology — mis-clustered\nPMID 41749246 — subject is tegu (Salvator merianae), a different species, not leopard gecko\nPMID 40987466 — entry labeled off-topic: leopard gecko iridophoroma (neoplasm), not toxicology — mis-clustered\nPMID 41150105 — subject is blue-tongued skink (Tiliqua scincoides), a different species, not leopard gecko\n","sources":["Europe PMC — Evidence cluster — Leopard gecko (Eublepharis macularius) toxicology (peer-reviewed, Europe PMC) (retrieved 2026-08-01)"],"source":{"authority":"Europe PMC","title":"Evidence cluster — Leopard gecko (Eublepharis macularius) toxicology (peer-reviewed, Europe PMC)","url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41183498/","retrieved":"2026-08-01","ref":"PMID 41183498","doc_type":"official PDF","source_document":"Peer-reviewed Leopard gecko toxicology literature (Europe PMC, first-hand abstracts)","verification_file":"pdf-raw/evidence/europepmc_leopard_gecko_toxicology_2026-08-01.txt"},"source_document":"Peer-reviewed Leopard gecko toxicology literature (Europe PMC, first-hand abstracts)","source_file":"pdf-raw/evidence/europepmc_leopard_gecko_toxicology_2026-08-01.txt","trust":{"authority_tier":"T2","fidelity":"paraphrase","license":"mixed","display_grade":"B"},"tokens_estimated":600,"generated_at":null,"tip":"Use /api/v1/topics to discover more topics. /api/v1/nutrient for precise single-point queries. /api/v1/cross_compare for 2-3 standard comparisons."}