Evidence: Pet bird (psittacine) toxicology
Source: Europe PMC (Europe PubMed Central) REST search — first-hand peer-reviewed abstract records, pulled 2026-08-01. Queries covered toxicology, poisoning, intoxication, heavy metals, mycotoxins and (for relevant taxa) envenomation for psittacine. The cluster returns 6 representative studies with abstracts below. Abstract text is verbatim from source; each study is traceable by PMID.
Studies
- PMID 42192709 (2026, Antibiotics (Basel, Switzerland)) — Pet Birds as Potential Reservoirs of Antimicrobial-Resistant Bacteria in Digestive and Respiratory Infections.. Abstract (opening): <h4>Background/objectives</h4>Pet birds are increasingly recognized as potential reservoirs of zoonotic and antimicrobial-resistant bacteria, raising concerns within the One Health framework. However, data on bacterial diversity and resistance profiles in clinically affected ornamental birds remain limited.<h4>Methods</h4>This study, conducted over three years (November 2022-March 2026), included 198 pet birds presenting with digestive and respiratory disorders. From these birds, clinical samples were analyzed bacteriologically; resulting isolates were identified by MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry, and antimicrobial susceptibility assessed using the Kirby-Bauer disk diffusion method according to EUCAST and CLSI guidelines.<h4>Results</h4>Bacterial growth was detected in 87.9% of cases, yielding 249 distinct isolates. Gram-positive cocci predominated (62.3%), led by <i>Staphylococcus</i> spp. (33.3%) and <i>Enterococcus</i> spp. (9.6%), while <i>Escherichia coli</i> (9.2%) was the primary Gram-negative species. At the genus level, <i>Staphylococcus</i> spp. demonstrated high susceptibility to amikacin (88.5%) but significant resistance to gentamicin (75.6%) and oxytetracycline (63.6%). In contrast, <i>Escherichia</i> spp. isolates were largely resistant, showing only 50% susceptibility to enrofloxacin and 40% to doxycycline, with resistance to tylosin reaching 90%. Overall, 57% of isolates were multidrug-resistant, with <i>Staphylococcus</i> spp. contributing most to this burden.<h4>Conclusions</h4>These findings characterize clinically ill pet birds as significant carriers of multidrug-resistant bacteria, highlighting the need for routine diagnostics and improved antimicrobial stewardship in avian medicine.
Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42192709/
- PMID 42221949 (2026, Frontiers in veterinary science) — Behavioral assessment of blue-fronted Amazon parrots (<i>Amazona aestiva</i> Linnaeus, 1758) subjected to experimentally induced osteoarthritis and rescue analgesia with tramadol in a laboratory environment.. Abstract (opening): <h4>Introduction</h4>This study aimed to identify behavioral changes in three blue-fronted Amazon parrots (<i>Amazona aestiva</i>) subjected to experimental induction of osteoarthritis and subsequent tramadol rescue analgesia.<h4>Methods</h4>All parrots received injections of 0.1 mL of 8% monosodium urate monohydrate (MUM) solution into the left intertarsal joint. Behaviors were recorded during all study phases (1: baseline; 2: post-induction of osteoarthritis; 3: post-induction of osteoarthritis with tramadol 1; 4: post-induction of osteoarthritis with tramadol 2) using focal sampling with instantaneous recordings every 30 s during 20-min sessions. Data were analyzed using generalized linear mixed models.<h4>Results</h4>Observed changes in behavioral patterns, including decreased locomotion, and exploration, increased stopped and inactive behavior, and reduced cage use (fewer areas used during acute pain), followed by partial recovery after tramadol administration, were consistent with the manifestation of unilateral arthritic pain and its possible attenuation.<h4>Discussion</h4>The species-specific ethogram for arthritic pain developed in this study may contribute to future antialgic evaluations with tramadol and other drugs, supporting the future development of a pain assessment scale for blue-fronted Amazon parrots.
Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42221949/
- PMID 40391266 (2025, Health science reports) — Psittacosis in Focus: A Review Addressing the Risks and Management Challenges in Outbreak Scenarios.. Abstract (opening): <h4>Background and aim</h4>Psittacosis is a zoonotic disease that mostly affects birds and can infect people. It causes respiratory ailments that can be minor or severe. The disease's importance to public health is shown by the fact that it has been connected to isolated outbreaks in several parts of the world. Comprehending the hazards linked to psittacosis is crucial, given that epidemics may have extensive consequences for public health, especially in environments where people and birds interact closely. Therefore, examining the risks, challenges, and methods for overcoming psittacosis infections is the primary focus of the study.<h4>Discussion</h4>Psittacosis' principal dangers include severe respiratory problems, which are especially dangerous for vulnerable groups. Inadequate diagnostic goods and services, public ignorance, and variances in hospital infrastructure all pose challenges to effective management. Strategies for combating psittacosis must include improved monitoring and reporting systems, better access to diagnosis and treatment, and expanded public awareness on protection. Incorporating biosecurity strategies in flocks and agricultural operations is also critical to lowering transmission risk.<h4>Conclusion</h4>Prioritizing psittacosis control is imperative for global health regulatory organizations to prevent future outbreaks. To promote research, allocate funds, and support public health initiatives aimed at enhancing disease management, quick action is needed. By promoting international cooperation and enhancing healthcare systems, we can effectively address the problems caused by psittacosis and better safeguard populations everywhere from this preventable disease.
Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40391266/
- PMID 40820131 (2025, BMC microbiology) — Gallibacterium anatis as an emerging pathogen in pet birds: biofilm formation contributes to treatment challenges and persistence.. Abstract (opening): <h4>Background</h4>Gallibacterium anatis (G. anatis), a microorganism of the Pasteurellaceae family, is an emerging avian pathogen associated with reproductive and respiratory diseases in poultry. However, its role in ornamental birds is still poorly understood. The aim of the present study was to conduct the first comprehensive survey of the prevalence of G. anatis in pet birds, to investigate its antimicrobial resistance (AMR) profile and to assess its ability to form biofilms using cultural, biochemical, molecular and histopathological methods.<h4>Methods</h4>In this study, 191 fecal and tissue samples were collected from various companion birds. Clinical samples were cultured on 5% sheep blood agar and MacConkey agar plates to isolate bacterial pathogens. After incubation, colonies were evaluated based on their macroscopic characteristics such as size, color, and hemolytic properties on blood agar-and a Gram stain was performed as an essential preliminary step for bacterial identification. The 16-23 S rRNA gene region of G. anatis was amplified by PCR method. The disc diffusion method was used to assess microbial susceptibility and resistance. Biofilm formation was analyzed using a microtiter plate assay. Tissue samples were routinely processed, embedded in paraffin, sectioned and stained with common haematoxylin-eosin (H&E).<h4>Results</h4>In this study, 20 G. anatis strains were isolated from 191 clinical samples of pet birds, representing a prevalence of 10.5%. Isolates were identified by colony morphology, Gram staining, biochemical testing and PCR for the -intergenic spacer region of 16-23 S rRNA, which yielded diagnostic amplicons of 790 bp and 1080 bp. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing showed complete susceptibility to ciprofloxacin (100%) and remarkable resistance to erythromycin (80%). β-lactam resistance was prevalent, with 70% and 75% of isolates resistant to ampicillin and amoxicillin, respectively. Biofilm formation tests showed that 80% of isolates had moderate biofilm formation. Gross and histopathological examinations of infected birds revealed severe respiratory and systemic lesions, including tracheitis, bronchopneumonia with focal necrosis, multifocal hepatic necrosis, and vascular congestion in multiple organs.<h4>Conclusions</h4>These results support the idea that G. anatis is a potentially important pathogen, with a biofilm-forming ability that contributes to treatment failure and environmental persistence. The 45% prevalence of multidrug resistance (MDR) highlights the pressing need for antimicrobial stewardship in avian veterinary medicine. Given the zoonotic potential of G. anatis, our study underscores the importance of One Health surveillance efforts in mitigating risk to both poultry and humans.
Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40820131/
- PMID 40860922 (2025, Frontiers in veterinary science) — Avian toxicoses: a review.. Abstract (opening): Bird species, both domestic and wild, are frequently exposed to a wide range of toxic compounds. Toxicosis in avian patients is often a clinical challenge. Diagnosis often relies on history and clinical signs because specific tests for most toxicants are not available in clinical practice, or they require unsustainable blood volume for small avian species. The management of toxicoses consists of patient stabilization, decreasing toxin absorption, improving its elimination, and supporting therapy. This literature review provides an outline of the most common toxicoses in birds, as well as their diagnosis and possible treatments.
Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40860922/
- PMID 40559834 (2025, Veterinary sciences) — Occurrence of <i>Aspergillus</i> spp. in Parrot Feeds on the Polish Market: The Potential Health Threat of Aspergillosis and Mycotoxicosis for Exotic Pet Birds, a Pilot Study.. Abstract (opening): A lack of awareness among exotic bird owners regarding the quality of feed may contribute to adverse health outcomes, including toxicosis, systemic mycoses, and potentially neoplastic processes. Fungi of the <i>Aspergillus</i> genus are the most pathogenic to avian species, particularly due to their involvement in respiratory diseases such as aspergillosis, which affects the air sacs. This study aims to assess the presence of <i>Aspergillus</i> spp. in commercially available parrot feed (grain mixtures) available on the Polish pet market, considering different price categories. A total of 22 dry parrot food samples were analyzed using the PN-ISO 21527-2:2009 protocol. <i>Aspergillus</i> spp. colonies were isolated from 16 out of 22 samples (72.7%), indicating a high incidence of contamination. Although these results are preliminary, they highlight a microbiological risk associated with grain-based parrot feeds and underscore the need for stricter quality control and greater awareness among pet owners and manufacturers.
Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40559834/
Source text: pdf-raw/evidence/europepmc_pet_bird_toxicology_2026-08-01.txt (Europe PMC first-hand abstracts, pulled 2026-08-01).
License & attribution
Source abstracts / records are Open Access under Creative Commons. Each referenced study is reproduced with attribution under its specific CC license (CC BY / CC BY-NC / CC BY-NC-ND); the exact license variant for each reference is stated on its Europe PMC / PMC record. Original records:
- https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42192709/
- https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42221949/
- https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41998070/
- https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42181097/
- https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40391266/
- https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40820131/
- https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40860922/
- https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40559834/
Cleaning removal log (2026-08-05, codebuddy)
PMID 41810234 — Human child with Cryptococcus linked to parrot exposure — subject is a human patient (rule 1). PMID 42338934 — Human adult with Chlamydia psittaci spherical pneumonia from parrot exposure — subject is a human patient (rule 1). PMID 41776660 — Human pest-control workers' seroprevalence study (hantavirus/Leptospira/LCMV/C. psittaci) — subjects are humans (rule 1). PMID 41526494 — Northern sea otters (Enhydra lutris, mammal) orthoreovirus — different species, not a bird (rule 2). PMID 41998070 — poultry production (broilers), not pet-bird toxicology (removed 2026-08-24, kimi) PMID 42181097 — poultry production (laying pullets), not pet-bird toxicology (removed 2026-08-24, kimi)