Evidence: Pet turtle (chelonian) toxicology
Source: Europe PMC (Europe PubMed Central) REST search — first-hand peer-reviewed abstract records, pulled 2026-08-01. Queries covered toxicology, poisoning, intoxication, heavy metals, mycotoxins and (for relevant taxa) envenomation for chelonian. The cluster returns 7 representative studies with abstracts below. Abstract text is verbatim from source; each study is traceable by PMID.
Studies
- PMID 42146017 (2026, Frontiers in physiology) — Physiological responses and adaptive mechanisms of amphibians and reptiles to multiple interacting environmental stressors: an integrative review.. Abstract (opening): This integrative review synthesizes current knowledge on the physiological responses and adaptive mechanisms of amphibians and reptiles to multiple interacting environmental stressors, with particular emphasis on synergistic effects among temperature, hydric stress, disease, and pollution. Given the stronger empirical basis for amphibians in the existing literature, amphibian responses are covered in greater depth, while reptile-specific physiology, immunology, and emerging infectious diseases are explicitly addressed in dedicated sections throughout the review. Critical thermal tolerance analyses reveal that approximately 7.5% of amphibian species will exceed their physiological limits under a 4 °C warming scenario, with tropical lowland species already operating near their CTmax thresholds. Thermal plasticity is limited, with acclimation responses averaging only 0.13 °C increase in CTmax per 1 °C environmental warming-insufficient to track rapid climate change. Water balance regulation shows dramatic interspecific variation, with cutaneous resistance ranging from 0.05 s/cm in aquatic amphibians to >1000 s/cm in desert-adapted reptiles. Synergistic interactions between thermal and hydric stress significantly amplify vulnerability, particularly in dehydration scenarios that reduce critical thermal limits. Chemical pollutants, including heavy metals and pesticides, cause developmental abnormalities (535% increase in malformation frequency), immunosuppression, and endocrine disruption across multiple life stages. Emerging infectious diseases, particularly chytridiomycosis (<i>Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis</i> and <i>B. salamandrivorans</i>) and ranaviruses, drive mass mortality events globally, with co-infections exacerbating population declines. Climate change intensifies disease susceptibility through stress-mediated immunosuppression and altered pathogen dynamics. Adaptive capacity varies markedly among species. While amphibians exhibit strong phenological responses (2-4× greater than other taxa), genetic adaptation potential remains limited by narrow dispersal abilities and habitat fragmentation. Microhabitat buffering can reduce thermal extremes by several degrees but depends critically on habitat structural integrity. This review demonstrates that the pace of anthropogenic change challenges the adaptive capacity of most species, necessitating integrated conservation strategies including microhabitat preservation, climate corridor establishment, pollution mitigation, disease surveillance, and <i>ex-situ</i> conservation programs.
Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42146017/
- PMID 40007752 (2025, Frontiers in veterinary science) — Electrocardiographic changes induced by temperature variations in newly hatched Aperema (<i>Rhinoclemmys punctularia,</i> Daudin, 1801).. Abstract (opening): <h4>Introduction</h4>Aperema (<i>Rhinoclemmys punctularia</i>) is a South American semi-aquatic freshwater turtle characterized by a highly curved, dark brown to black carapace and is distributed across Central and South America. Climate change affects freshwater turtles in a number of ways, including temperature, hatchling sex, and survival.<h4>Methods</h4>Therefore, we analyzed temperature variations in these turtles through electrocardiographic recordings, since studies on temperature variations in <i>R. punctularia</i> are limited.<h4>Results and discussion</h4>Electrocardiography (ECG) is a highly relevant diagnostic tool as it allows for precise assessments of cardiac events and is non-invasive. The development of non-invasive ECG measurement methods is crucial for evaluating and maintaining the health of chelonian individuals during veterinary treatment or experimental procedure. Our findings revealed that heart rate is temperature-dependent, showing that lower environmental temperatures result in decreased heart rates. Therefore, we demonstrated through the electrocardiographic patterns observed during the experiment that a reduction in the ambient temperature to which <i>Rhinoclemmys punctularia</i> are exposed can modulate the conductivity and automaticity of cardiac cells, subsequently leading to a decrease in heart rate.
Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40007752/
- PMID 40177670 (2025, Frontiers in veterinary science) — Mesenchymal stromal cell isolation from pond slider (<i>Trachemys scripta</i>) adipose tissue obtained during routine neutering: a model for turtle species.. Abstract (opening): <h4>Introduction</h4>Mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) hold great clinical potential in veterinary regenerative medicine. However, a notable gap exists in the literature regarding the isolation and characterization of these cells in reptiles. The objective of this study was to evaluate the feasibility of isolating adipose tissue-derived mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) from pond slider (<i>Trachemys scripta</i>) tissue samples collected during routine neutering procedures.<h4>Methods</h4>Adipose tissue samples were obtained from five animals and processed using an enzymatic procedure. The resulting cell suspension was subsequently cultured at 28°C in a controlled atmosphere with 5% CO<sub>2</sub>. The cell growth rates were evaluated through direct counting of cells up to passage 7. The colony-forming unit (CFU) capacity of MSCs was evaluated in low-density cell cultures, and the ability of the cells to differentiate into adipogenic, chondrogenic and osteogenic lineages was assessed. The cell phenotype was characterized at the molecular level using reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and amplicon sequencing, with a focus on markers commonly used for gene expression profiling of mammalian MSCs.<h4>Results</h4>The cells demonstrated the capacity to differentiate into adipogenic, chondrogenic, and osteogenic lineages. RT-PCR revealed the expression of CD105, CD73, CD44, and CD90, whereas CD34 and HLA-DRA were not expressed. Sequence homology analysis demonstrated that the amplicons matched the sequences reported in the <i>Trachemys scripta</i> whole-genome shotgun sequence. This study represents the first investigation aimed at the isolation, <i>in vitro</i> expansion, and characterization of reptile adipose tissue-derived MSCs.<h4>Discussion</h4>The results demonstrate the feasibility of isolating MSC-like cells from chelonian adipose tissue and underscore their potential for application in regenerative medicine for both companion reptiles and endangered wild species.
Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40177670/
- PMID 41600686 (2025, Veterinary sciences) — Biochemical and Hepatic Determinants of Reproductive Failure in Reptiles: A Review of Dystocia Pathophysiology and Management.. Abstract (opening): Dystocia represents a multifactorial and clinically significant reproductive disorder affecting a broad spectrum of reptilian species. Commonly resulting from prolonged vitellogenesis, endocrine disruption, or hepatic lipidosis, dystocia is often exacerbated by suboptimal husbandry or concurrent disease. This review critically evaluates the etiology, diagnostic criteria, and therapeutic interventions associated with this condition. Emphasis is placed on the interplay between metabolic exhaustion and hepatic compromise, which may lower the threshold for surgical intervention. The efficacy and limitations of oxytocin-based protocols are discussed in the context of hormonal receptor variability and response attenuation. Advanced diagnostic modalities, including ultrasonography, radiography/CT, and biochemical profiling, are reviewed for their utility in case stratification. Finally, surgical management options are considered for cases refractory to medical treatment, with attention paid to timing, anesthetic risk, and post-operative care. Collectively, this synthesis aims to inform evidence-based clinical decision-making and promote improved standards of care in reptile reproductive medicine.
Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41600686/
- PMID 41180164 (2025, Animal welfare (South Mimms, England)) — Laying the groundwork for reptile welfare assessment in zoos and private keeping: A literature-based proposal.. Abstract (opening): With the increasing number and diversity of reptile species kept in zoological facilities and households, their welfare in captivity warrants structured and consistent evaluation. However, focused research on reptile welfare remains limited within the broader field of animal welfare science. Recognising such a gap, this study adopts an evidence-informed approach to review existing literature and proposes two conceptual welfare assessment frameworks - one for zoo settings and another for private keeping. We first identify the intended audiences for each framework and discuss common challenges reptile caretakers may face when conducting welfare assessments in different contexts. The frameworks are grounded in established principles from the Five Domains model and the European Welfare Quality® protocol, incorporating both resource- and animal-based indicators under the domains of Environment, Nutrition, Physical Health, and Behaviour. The design rationale is also explained to support future refinement. Finally, these conceptual frameworks are intended as a foundation for the development and validation of adaptable tools, capable of guiding improved husbandry practices and resource allocation for better welfare outcomes across a broad range of reptile taxa.
Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41180164/
- PMID 38170193 (2024, Microbial genomics) — Emergence and genomic characteristics of multi-drug-resistant <i>Salmonella</i> in pet turtles and children with diarrhoea.. Abstract (opening): Pet turtles are a well-recognized source of human salmonellosis, posing a threat to human health, particularly children who commonly keep pet turtles. To date, the genomic characteristics of <i>Salmonella</i> among pet turtles and children has not been well described. We investigated the prevalence, antimicrobial resistance (AMR) and genomic characteristics of <i>Salmonella</i> from pet turtles in Beijing, China. In total, 9.6 % (46/480) of pet turtles were positive for <i>Salmonella</i> with <i>S</i>. Thompson being the dominant serovar (19/46) in 2019. Moreover, 80.4 % of <i>Salmonella</i> were multi-drug resistant (MDR) and 60.7 % were resistant to ampicillin, streptomycin, sulfonamides and tetracycline (ASSuT). We further compared the genomes of <i>S</i>. Thompson isolates from pet turtles (<i>n</i>=19) with those from children with diarrhoea (<i>n</i>=28) in the same region and year, most of which were sequence type (ST)26, with one novel ST7937 identified from a child-associated isolate. <i>S</i>. Thompson isolates from children with diarrhoea exhibited less resistance than isolates from pet turtles. Most MDR isolates possessed multiple AMR genes, including the AmpC β-lactamase-encoding genes <i>bla</i> <sub>DHA-15</sub> and <i>bla</i> <sub>DHA-1</sub> which co-occurred with the IncA/C and IncHI plasmid replicon types. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first time that the <i>bla</i> <sub>DHA-15</sub> gene has been detected from <i>Salmonella</i>. Several pet turtle-associated <i>S</i>. Thompson isolates comprised phylogenetically close clusters with those from children with diarrhoea (<20 SNP differences). Bayesian analysis demonstrated that the Chinese ST26 <i>S</i>. Thompson strains had a recent evolutionary history and evolved into two major clades, with one clade acquiring various resistant plasmids. Our findings revealed the emergence of MDR <i>Salmonella</i> among pet turtles in China and provided evidence for the interspecies transmission of <i>S</i>. Thompson.
Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38170193/
- PMID 37569029 (2023, International journal of environmental research and public health) — Total Mercury Content in the Tissues of Freshwater Chelonium (<i>Podocnemis expansa</i>) and a Human Health Risk Assessment for the Amazon Population in Brazil.. Abstract (opening): Researchers recognize the silent, negative and deleterious effects caused by mercury pollution in gold mining areas. Freshwater turtles are culturally part of the diet of riverside populations in the Amazon region and this area presents mercury (Hg) pollution issues mainly due to gold mining activities. Thus, this research aimed to evaluate the total mercury (THg) content in the different organs of Amazonian giant river turtle (<i>Podocnemis expansa</i>) and carry out a human health risk assessment associated with the consumption of these animals. This study was conducted in the Vila Balbina, municipality of Presidente Figueiredo, state of Amazonas, Brazil. Skin (<i>n</i> = 28), muscle (<i>n</i> = 19) and brain (<i>n</i> = 2) samples were analyzed by Atomic Absorption Spectrometry (TDA-AAS) and a DMA-80™ mercury analyzer was used for the total mercury determinations. The average values found for THg in the skin, muscle and brain samples were, respectively, 0.1045 mg·kg<sup>-1</sup>, 0.1092 mg·kg<sup>-1</sup> and 0.0601 mg·kg<sup>-1</sup>. Thus, THg was observed even though the <i>P. expansa</i> were kept in captivity, possibly due to previous contamination by air, water and food. The Hazard Quotient (HQ) was calculated considering a 9.07 g·day<sup>-1</sup> intake dose of <i>P. expansa</i> and the consumption of turtles once a week showed an HQ = 2.45, which may cause long-term injuries to human health. Although the muscle concentrations were below the maximum limit established by the World Health Organization (WHO) and Brazilian regulatory agencies, it is important to evaluate consumption factors such as amount ingested, frequency and animal gender, which may cause a potential risk to regular consumers due to mercury bioaccumulation. The WHO may consider various aspects in order to warn the Amazon population about the severity and silent hazard of this metal, especially due to the importance of this matrix in the region. This region urgently needs government actions to inhibit clandestine mining and to prevent future serious, chronic health problems of the entire population.
Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37569029/
Source text: pdf-raw/evidence/europepmc_turtle_toxicology_2026-08-01.txt (Europe PMC first-hand abstracts, pulled 2026-08-01).
License & attribution
Source abstracts / records are Open Access under Creative Commons. Each referenced study is reproduced with attribution under its specific CC license (CC BY / CC BY-NC / CC BY-NC-ND); the exact license variant for each reference is stated on its Europe PMC / PMC record. Original records:
- https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/42146017/
- https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40007752/
- https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40177670/
- https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41600686/
- https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/41180164/
- https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38170193/
- https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37569029/
Cleaning removal log (2026-08-05, codebuddy)
PMID 41953693 — myocarditis after invasive Group A Streptococcus in a 21-year-old man; human PMID 41025135 — global genomic data sharing for foodborne outbreaks; human food safety, turtle only cited as one example PMID 41011392 — Proteus mirabilis zoonosis review across animals and animal-derived foods; broad, turtle not named PMID 40034876 — pharmacy workforce satisfaction and retention; human PMID 39138824 — infant botulism (Clostridium botulinum spores); human